Combating Terrorism in South Asia
Problems and prospects
Md Shamsul Islam
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Terrorism is a highly controversial issue in contemporary international politics. In effect, the controversy exists over its nature, causes and consequences with no efforts by the scholars to come to any conclusive opinion on the subject. Notwithstanding this, terrorism is nowadays considered as a threat to global peace and security, especially in the aftermath of 9/11. True, while there is the problem with respect to defining terrorism, less controversy exists with respect to the “forms and manifestations” in which it takes place, and all such types are well documented by the UN.
It should be mentioned that the forms and manifestations of terrorism do not follow a stereo-typed pattern. The factors that generate it, and the violence which characterize it are varied in nature. As a result, each pocket of terrorism varies from the other in its origin, types and methods. What then is the nature of terrorism in South Asia? The question raised attains more pertinence as in the aftermath of 11 September the focus of the international community has shifted to this region due to increasing influence of numerous religious extremist and terrorist activities in the area.
What, perhaps, is more important to take note is that, in most instances, the terrorist activities that plague South Asian states have cross-border dimension mainly due to the fact that their origins and causes interconnect and overlap political boundaries. Quite dismayingly, the governments in South Asia have taken very little initiatives to combat terrorism in their respective countries, either individually or collectively. The result being that the countries of the region, i.e., Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Nepal continue to remain bogged down in terrorism, and that too at an alarming rate. In this light, the main purpose of this article is to discuss briefly the nature and complexities of terrorism in South Asian countries and to suggest some ideas as to how the countries can combat the menaces of terrorism through appropriate policy measures.
A common strategy is suggested as the countries of South Asia share many commonalties with respect to history, tradition, culture, religion and other spheres of life and they can share their experience within the framework of SAARC. Despite this, counter terrorism measures have not been properly explored in the region as yet. In this connection, while there has been the lack of initiative on the part of the governments, initiatives from the civil society or the media in combating terrorism have not been that forthcoming either.
Dynamics of Terrorism in South Asia
Empirical evidences abound in South Asia to demonstrate that the terrorism in the region is mostly ethno-religious oriented. This is because of the misperception, apprehension, mistrust and tension that exist between and among various nationalities and communities.
This negative phenomenon has its roots in the region's complex history, culture, religion, tradition, social norms and customs. While in most cases, the mentioned factors pull the communities towards unison, there are occasions when the same unifying factors divide the communities along ethnic and religious lines. Unfortunately, political elites more often than not exploit this divide as safe passages to their power and legitimacy. Added to this is the uneven socio-economic and development process, based on political opportunism and exclusion that acts as key factor in creating instability in the region. In such a scenario, most of the South Asian nations have faltered on their nation building process, thereby leaving the polities of the region a hostage in perpetuity to political, economic and social chaos and confusion. As Rita Manchanda observes, “the nation building process in South Asia, has been focused on forging nationalists identities based on the politics of exclusion, walling in people in a confrontationist agenda, with implications for minorities within the state and for external relations.”
To further elucidate the above viewpoint, it can be stated that States in most of the South Asian countries have failed to ensure the basic needs of their citizenry, which has resulted in the creation of several dissatisfied groups in their respective societies. Communalism, corruption, political discrimination all these are responsible for resorting to the terrorism and violent means in societies. Socio-economic factors like hunger, poverty, joblessness, trauma have created inhuman conditions and given rise to the need to break the shackles of extreme want through extreme actions.2 Some of the ongoing crises in the region like the Tamil separatist movement in Sri Lanka, the separatist movement in the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir,3 the sporadic communal violence in India etc. are the few examples to vindicate the viewpoint that social, economic, political and cultural deprivation can lead to conflicts that can attain serious intensity with all possible avenues of terrorism. In all such cases, two underlying factors are visibly discernible, first, people become more sharply aware of their common identity and people become increasingly resentful about their unjust and unequal status in comparison with other groups. The sense of resentment is usually based on inequalities and denial of people's rights and opportunities.
Terrorism in the aftermath of 9/11
The event of September 11, 2001 is, in the opinion of many analysts, observers and researchers, a vantage point from where the international community, henceforth is required to look at global politics and security, economy, sociology and philosophy from an entirely new perspective. The newly sought outlook towards these important aspects of global life has been rationalized on an argument that terrorism would continue to threaten in perpetuity many established norms, values and institutions of modern civilization with serious consequences for world peace and stability. Global security paradigms and concepts have changed in the wake of after 9/11 realities. “A state's principal threat may no longer be another state, but rather shadowy sub-state-or even trans-state networks of individuals, weapons and financing.” Like shift of security paradigm, shift of terrorism has also occurred, we now witness shift from ideologically sponsored terrorism to religious extremists sponsored terrorism.
A number of scholars in the post 9/11 period have taken unbridled liberty in directly equating terrorism with Islamic militancy, extremism or fundamentalism. What has probably fomented this liberty is the fact that the terrorist attacks on September 11, are alleged to be committed by a band of Muslim radicals belonging to I group. It is no denying the fact that as a dangerous ideology, Al-Qaedaism is spreading in many parts of the world and making lives difficult for common Muslims around the world. But with the new Muslim element in the equation of terrorism, there came the eventual onslaught
on the entire Muslim world that in the eyes of many appeared to be the breeding ground for all contemporary terrorist activities.
While terrorist acts, by all logical conclusions, constitute a crime against humanity and call for a combat against it by all quarters, the U.S. reaction, in particular to the phenomenon draws one's attention. In this connection, three elements in the U.S. policy are, indeed, mind arresting. First, a virtual equation of the post 9/11 version of terrorism with Islamic militancy, extremism or fundamentalism by the U.S. leaders. Second, by defining the war on terror as a war against radical and militant expressions of Islam, the U.S.A has taken a wide-angle view of the Muslim world. Third, the U.S. seems to have deviated from its earlier segmented or 'country-specific policy' towards the Muslim world. Many scholars tend to argue that in the post 9/11, the U.S. foreign policy vis-à-vis the entire Muslim world seems to be following a unified goal.6 While it is unfortunate that many Western countries have started sharing similar views, South Asian countries should understand that terrorists have no religion other than doing harm to the mankind.
Combating Terrorism and Regional Cooperation in South Asia The agenda of SAARC which encompasses a wide range of social, economic and cultural aspects affecting the life and welfare of the citizens has also taken many steps with regard to terrorism in the region. Some of these are mentioned below:
-- Working paper presented by Bangladesh: SAARC Study Group Meeting on Terrorism: June 12-14, 1986, Dhaka, Bangladesh
-- Report on Study Group Meeting on Terrorism, June 12-14, 1986, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
-- Working Paper prepared by Bangladesh: SAARC Expert Group Meeting on Terrorism: Sept. 20-21, 1986, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
-- Report of SAARC Expert Group Meeting on Terrorism, September 20-21, 1986, Dhaka, Bangladesh
-- Second SAARC Summit in Banglore, Nov. 17, 1986, Draft Declalration to Combat Terrorism
-- Third SAARC Summit in Kathmandu, Nov, 4, 1987 SAARC Regional Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism.
-- In the Eleventh Summit in Kathmandu (January, 2002), the leaders of the SAARC have taken a pledge to make collective efforts to stamp out terrorism.
An additional clause was added to the SAARC Convention on Suppression of Terrorism in the 12th SAARC summit. All such measures embody and give a regional focus to many of the well-established principles of international law in combating terrorism. In brief, all the member states are committed to extradite or prosecute alleged terrorists thus preventing them from enjoying safe havens. Regional cooperation is also envisaged in preventive action to combat terrorism. Exchange of information, intelligence and expertise are among the areas identified for mutual cooperation under all conventions.
Cooperation among Liaison Officers (Anti Terrorist Law Enforcement Officers) has been developed through holding international meetings continually at regular intervals to monitor, evaluate and improve counter-terrorism strategies.
The SAARC Terrorist Offences Monitoring Desk (STOMD) has been established in Colombo to collate, analyze and disseminate information about the terrorist incidence, tactics, strategies and methods. It deplored all terrorist acts for their ruinous impact on life, property, socio-economic development and political stability as well as on regional and international peace and cooperation.9 Unfortunately, the member states of the SAARC have not made any serious effort to implement the SAARC Convention on Terrorism. There is, therefore, the need to see how terrorism is being tackled in other regional bodies or areas outside SAARC.
International and regional cooperation is required to fight terrorism. One of the most effective measures taken by the UN against terrorism so far is resolution 1373 (28 September 2001) of the Security Council through which a number of mandatory decisions were taken on terrorist financing, obligating states to refrain from providing support to terrorists and to take necessary steps to prevent financing of terrorism and deny safe heaven to terrorists. With this resolution the counter-terrorism committee has
been established, to which all member states report on the steps they have taken to implement this resolution.
Future outlook
SAARC countries should bear in mind that there would be no economic development without giving proper attention to the political issues both at the national and regional levels. This viewpoint is shared by all experts. For instance, only a couple of months ago at Wilton Park Conference on “South Asia: What are the benefits of regional cooperation?”, it was observed that: “Political differences between states have bedeviled South Asian regional co-operation. Some believe that internal constraints, such as
political instability or conflict, poor governance, the growth of fundamentalism, inroads into judicial independence and media freedom, corruption and lack of transparency, are also serious impediments. Without attention to these political issues, there can be no sustainable economic development.”
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The author is Asst Prof. Journalism & Media Studies, Stamford University, Bangladesh. (Paper presented at IFA seminar in Kathmandu).
Terrorism
Challenge for the leadership
Dr Mohan Lohani
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South Asia inhabited by more than one billion people accounts for one-fifth of humanity. The region consists of seven countries, some of which are large and some extremely small. While India is the largest country in terms of size, population and resources, the Maldives is just a cluster of tiny islands with a population of a little over two hundred thousand inhabitants. With a civilization regarded as one of the most ancient, the region, over the past several decades, has become a mosaic of crises, including insurgencies, ethnic and sectarian conflicts, terrorism, irredentism, and civil and conventional war. The continuity of violence in the region is interpreted as a classic example of the nation state projects falling to pieces or the erosion of sovereignty and inviolability of the state system.
habited by more than one billion people accounts for one-fifth of humanity. The region consists of seven countries, some of which are large and some extremely small. While India is the largest country in terms of size, population and resources, the Maldives is just a cluster of tiny islands with a population of a little over two hundred thousand inhabitants. With a civilization regarded as one of the most ancient, the region, over the past several decades, has become a mosaic of crises, including insurgencies, ethnic and sectarian conflicts, terrorism, irredentism, and civil and conventional war. The continuity of violence in the region is interpreted as a classic example of the nation state projects falling to pieces or the erosion of sovereignty and inviolability of the state system.
South Asia, indeed, has developed a culture of violence in recent years. In most South Asian countries, insurgency and counter- insurgency movements and operations have become the order of the day.
While charges and counter charges on both sides have become a routine affair, the problem remains as it is. The death toll, over the last decade and a half, from acts of terrorism and counter terrorism has been quite heavy. Both India and Pakistan, in recent months, having realized the futility of a military solution to the problem of Kashmir have agreed on confidence- building measures, including agreement to resume the composite dialogue process for a peaceful settlement of all outstanding issues including the Kashmir dispute.
There are other parts of India where terrorist violence has become a routine affair. In North-East India, several insurgent groups have been fighting for secession or for greater autonomy. While the Bodos have sneaked into Bhutan and used it as a sanctuary for attacks against India, Bangladesh has been accused by India of harbouring the terrorist groups from its North-Eastern States. Ethnic minorities have their grievances in both Bangladesh and Pakistan. Political violence is a common sight in Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Chakmas of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh, had found sanctuary in the Indian province of Tripura for their acts of insurgency against the country they came from.
Sri Lanka, a Buddhist country, has been in a state of civil war since 1983 owing to continuing violent clashes between the two communities- the Singhla majority and the Tamil minority. The latter has been clamouring for a separate state called Tamil Eelam on grounds of discriminatory treatment meted out to this group by the Singhalese who constitute more than 80 percent of Sri Lanka's population. The Tamil terrorists have assassinated important public figures like former President Prema Dasa, other political leaders, civil servants, army officers and thousands of innocent civilians. These separatists are equipped with modern sophisticate weapons and receive funds from abroad. Although the February 2002 cease-fire ended Sri Lanka's brutal two-decade civil war, ethnic conflict has not been finally resolved. The government of Sri Lanka headed by President Kumaratunga is prepared for devolution of more authority to the provincial government of minority Tamils. Both sides must accept a political solution to put an end to the continuing spiral of violence and bloodshed.
The existence of multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-ethnic groups in South Asia can not be wished away. Discord or disunity among the various communities is rooted in conflict situations arising from race, religion, language, caste and ethnicity. Besides, the region has common problems such as poverty, unemployment and population explosion. Some countries, victims of an unsavoury legacy of the past, continue to have strained relations aggravated at times by mutual distrust, suspicion and misunderstanding. Acts of terrorism in the region can not be explained without taking all these variables into consideration.
It is generally admitted that South Asia is facing the problem of terrorism on a much larger scale with ominous implications for regional peace and stability. South Asian leaders recognized the gravity of the issue and the necessity of addressing and overcoming it in 1985 when the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was launched. The first SAARC Summit had on its agenda the problem of terrorism as a prominent item and set up a study group to examine the problem in depth and come up with recommendations. After nearly two years' deliberations, a SAARC Convention on Prevention and Suppression of Terrorism was adopted and signed in Kathmandu at the third Summit in 1987. The Convention condemns all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and deplores their impact on life and property, socio-economic development, political stability, regional and international peace and cooperation. The Convention can certainly become an effective mechanism to combat terrorism, provided there is strong political will to implement it. The Convention, even after 18 years of its adoption, has not been effectively enforced owing to lack of enabling legislation in most member states of the region, despite the fact that most of them have been hit hard by insurgency and terrorist violence. The SAARC leaders, while reaffirming their commitment to a collective fight against terrorism and the full implementation of the 1987 Convention at the Eleventh and Twelfth Summits, have reiterated their firm resolve to speed up the enactment of enabling legislation within a definite time-frame. A positive decision was a recognition of the need to update the SAARC Convention on Suppression of Terrorism on account of the obligations devolving on member states in terms of UN Security Council Resolution 1373 and the International Convention for the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism.
A significant achievement of the Twelfth SAARC Summit was the signing of the Additional Protocol to the SAARC Regional Conventional on Combating Terrorism to deal effectively with financing of terrorism. The South Asian leaders have described it as a 'further manifestation of our determination to eliminate all forms and manifestations of terrorism from South Asia.' In this context, it may not be out of place to recall King Gyanendra's appeal, in his recent address to the Doha Conference as mentioned above, to the international community to 'resolutely come forward with an effective framework in curbing the financing of terrorism.' Since SAARC is an expression of common will or desire to achieve, promote or maximize regional wellbeing and prosperity through cooperation, sincere efforts should be made to overcome all political differences through dialogue, interaction and periodic meetings and consultations. The SAARC member states should initiate and encourage such consultations to combat terrorism through joint strategy, action plan and cooperative programmes. The South Asian leaders who have supported the UN initiative reflected in Security Council Resolution 1373 have reaffirmed that the fight against terrorism in all its forms and manifestations has to be comprehensive and sustained. This is a South Asian response to a problem of global concern and dimension.
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The author is Executive Director, Institute for Sustainable Development, Kathmandu.(Paper presented at IFA seminar in Kathmandu).
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