Major disasters and management issues

Mahbuba Nasreen

Since her independence on the ashes of destruction wreaked by Pakistan occcupation forces, Bangladesh over the four decades endured considerable number of natural and human made disasters such as floods and cyclones, river bank erosion, famines or famine like phenomenon, widespread poverty, as well as political turmoil including military coups.

The flood of 1974 was the first kind of severe disaster and an added burden on the efforts of the immediate post-independence government to fulfill its political commitments. At that time the country was involved in rehabilitation activities, attempting to over come the socio-cultural, economic and structural losses. Since late eighties disasters in Bangladesh have become frequent phenomena which have been posing multiple threats to her people. It ranged from devastating floods to cyclone, tornado, storm/ tidal surge, river bank erosion, drought, salinity expansion, arsenic contamination in ground water, earthquake, 'monga' (a famine like phenomenon cause severe food insecurity). All of these interrupt the process of social and economic development. According to UN disaster report, in Bangladesh total loss of human lives is estimated at 454,436 from 1971 to 2009.

Disasters in Bangladesh are created by many factors such as geographical and topographical features; confluence of the major rivers; high monsoon rainfall within and outside Bangladesh; global warming; low mean sea level; rise of sea level; siltation of rivers; flood control measures; deforestation; and earthquakes in the Himalayas and Andaman islands. The our set of factors included use of chemical fertilizers; excessive withdrawal of ground water; shrimp cultivation and unplanned urbanization and industrialization. Most of these are either happening due to human activities or due to natural or geographical causes.

It has been argued by the researchers that disasters may cause by geographical/ topographical or ecological features but these are shaped by human activities. While Bangladesh is facing several kinds of disasters, in future the country is likely to be affected by the biggest ever global disaster, i.e. climate change. The estimated increase in temperature would be 1.3 degree Celsius by the year 2030. National total rainfall is likely to be increased by 295.94mm in 2050. Climate change contributes to increase frequency and severity of disasters with adverse impacts on humans, natural ecosystem and quality of human survival. Due to a disaster poor people suffer from malnutrition as they fail to procure food (crop loss/damage, high price of essentials etc.). Deforestation, over fishing, over grazing, salt built up, water borne diseases from irrigation, endangered wild life from loss of habitat, loss of genetic diversity, water pollution, air pollution, climate change are related to each other and having impacts on food production.

This article will mostly concentrates on major kinds of disaster which have been disrupting the economy of Bangladesh since independence. It must be mentioned here that disasters such as floods and cyclones attract the attention of people due to their visibility whereas other slow or silent disasters remain out of focus for their invisible nature. These include river bank erosion, drought, salinity intrusion, arsenic contamination to ground water and monga in the Northern region of Bangladesh. Most of these disasters often go unrecognized as localized event or as natural phenomenon.

Floods: Of all the disasters floods are most common and are annual phenomenon with the most severe occurring during the months of July and August. Regular river floods affect 20% of the country increasing up to 68% in extreme years. Since the independence the floods of 1974, 1987, 1988, 1998, 2004 and 2007 were particularly catastrophic, resulting in large-scale destruction and loss of lives. Approximately 37%, 43%, 52% and 68% of the country were inundated with floods of return periods of 10, 20, 50 and 100 years respectively (MPO, 1986). Floods occurring over last 40 years are not uniform and flood water came from three main sources: the sea, the rivers and rainfall. These together or independently, generate more water than can be drained quickly from the land. There is hardly any study found on the flood of 1974, whereas extensive research were being carried out since the floods of 1987 and 1988 and several theories of the causes of floods have been given. However, the theories were mostly concerned to provide a structural solution to the problems of flooding in Bangladesh.

Floods of 1987 and 1988 were considered as the most severe in 70-100 years. Both floods disrupted economic activities (1987: inundated over 50,000 sq. km, estimated damage US$ 1 billion, 2055 deaths; 1988 inundated 61% of the country, estimated damage US$ 1.2 billion, more than 45 million homeless, between 2,000-6,500 deaths) for over a month. The 1998 flood was more destructive (Inundated nearly 100,000 sq. km., rendered 30 million people homeless, damaged 500,000 homes, heavy loss to infrastructure, estimated damage US$ 2.8 billion, 1,100 deaths) than those of 1987 and 1988. All of these floods were different in context of their natures and origins. This has led the experts to further speculate about the causes of floods.

However, the devastating floods in this land must go back to the two consecutive floods of 1954 to 1955. These two floods forced the then Pakistan government to apparently try to provide a solution to the problem of floods. A Commission was formed in 1957 under the leadership of J.A. Krugg. Since 1960 researchers around the world have been providing theories to control the floods of East Pakistan. The flood control projects of Bangladesh were the results of the theories of sixties which have already been identified as 'faulty' measures during the consecutive floods of 1987 and 1988. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, was severely affected during 1988 and 1998 floods.The 2004 flood was very similar to the 1988 and 1998 floods with two thirds of the country under water. The capital city of Dhaka was literally swimming in sewage. During 2007 flood almost all the country (46 out of 64 districts) were inundated. Millions of people were marooned. The flood of 2007 appeared twice and destroyed houses, infrastructure, devastated all types of agricultural activities, crops, livestock, fisheries, forests. Number of death from water borne diseases, snake bites, drowning, and lack of medical facilities were more than in previous floods. The flood related response in 2007 from different agencies was late during disaster due to the very different nature of the operation of a caretaker government. The relief distribution system and other responses were also delayed due to centralized distribution mechanisms.

Photo: Wahid Adnan/Drik News

Since the early 1960s experts from different parts of the world had been invited to provide policy recommendations on the flood problems. Following the path, Bangladesh has also implemented a considerable number of flood control projects or was in the process of implementing new projects, despite almost all the projects completed during Pakistan regime demonstrating serious shortcomings in planning, design and execution since 1987 and 1988 floods. Over the last three decades since independence about 200 flood control projects have been completed under the name of Flood Control Drainage (FCD) and Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation (FCDI) projects. These projects proceeded without the environmental impact assessment. Lessons have not been learnt from the past experience: embankments continue to be built and Flood Action Plan (FAP) has been formed (after 1988 flood) to provide a permanent solution to the flood of Bangladesh. Since its establishment FAP has been criticized by the local and International experts because of its decision to construct long embankments. Because of such adverse and ineffective, improper planning, along with other causes, floods in Bangladesh are continuing to be a major disaster throughout the last four decades.

In recent years the decision makers, after the constant efforts made by the scientists and social scientists, have realized that floods of Bangladesh can only be managed, and not be controlled because of the very nature of the fashioning of the delta and flood plain and the livelihood of rural fishing and agro-based communities. We must understand that flooding in Bangladesh is not a hydraulic or physical phenomenon for which engineering design can provide a sole solution. We must recognize that people in Bangladesh have developed many strategies to cope with severe floods through their experiences of living with annual floods (borsha) and severe floods (bonna). If proper attention would have been given to strengthen the existing indigenous coping mechanisms among people living with floods, we would have avoided the miseries of millions of marooned people.

Cyclone: Cyclones of Bangladesh, associated with storm surge, cause deaths (human and animal species) and disrupt economy more than other countries within South Asia. In addition, outbreaks of epidemics like cholera and diarrhea are also mostly associated with cyclones. Within the forty years of independence all of the coastal areas and off shore islands were affected by cyclone and tidal bores. However, cyclone in Chittagong region is not a new phenomenon. Abul Fazal in his Ain-E- Akbori mentioned about the cyclone of 16th century in this land.

In the history of cyclones in this land in 1775, 1897, 1960, 1963, 1970, 1985, 1991 and 2007 have been identified as the severest.

The cyclone of 1970 occurred in November, four months before the independence war and termed as on of the worst disasters of the century. It claimed 500,000 lives from Sandwip to Patualkhali. Another localized cyclonic storm with a tidal surge blew over Urir char under Sandwip Upazila. Extensive localized deaths and damage took place, claiming 6504 dead. Cyclone of 29 April 1991 was the severest since the cyclone of November 1970. It extended from Teknaf in the southeastern seaboard to Barguna-a coastline of 644km. But the worse affected area was the eastern seaboard extending from Sandwip island and Sitakunda on the mainland south ward to Kutubdia, Chokoria and Moheshkhali in Cox'sbazar -- a sea coast of 175 to 180km. The tidal surge was 9 meter high lasting for almost 9 hours. It wiped out embankments, both earthen and concrete slab revetment with ease.

Media, TV and telecommunication systems collapsed, cutting off the entire region from rest of the world. Loss of human lives was estimated at 131,539. A total of 75,528 dead bodies were buried by the volunteers and many others were swept to the sea. Nearly half a million of people were injured.

Cyclone Sidr hit Bangladesh in November 2007, killing over 3,400 people, injuring over 50,000, damaging or destroying over 1.5 million homes, and affecting the livelihoods of over 7 million people. Save the Children and Red Crescent Society estimated the number of deaths to be between 5,000 and 10,000. Twelve districts in coastal Bangladesh (Barisal Patuakhali, Borguna, Pirojpur, Jhalkthi, Bhola, Bagerhat, Khulna, Satkhira, Shariatpur, Chittagong and Cox'sbazar) and their offshore islands and chars were affected by the Sidr. Of these Bagerhat, Barguna, Perojpur and Patuakhali were identified as the severely affected districts. According to the Bangladesh Meteorological Department 3,363 human and 4,62,815 cattle population are dead. Another 55,282 people are injured and approximately 5,64,967 houses are totally destroyed and 9,57,110 houses are partly damaged. It is also reported that 7,43,321 acres of crop areas are fully and 17,30,316 acres area partly damaged by the Sidr'2007. Another cyclone called 'Aila' blew over Bangladesh on May 25, 2009 which forced half a million people to leave their homes and to move temporary shelters. It is estimated that about 200 people are dead, 1,120 people are went missing and 200,000 people are trapped in water. River embankments broke and road networks, water and communication systems were hampered. The affected areas were without electricity for over 24 hours. The ensuing tidal surge flooded land and damaged embankments, particularly across Khulna and Satkhira districts, affecting 3.9 million people. Following the cyclone, 1,742 kilometers of embankments were breached and large areas remain flooded.

Assessments after the two cyclones in the affected areas indicate that damages in people's livelihoods have resulted in losses which have interrupted self-reliance and recovery of the affected population. The precarious situation and long-term displaced families has also resulted in increased migration to urban areas, forced to be re-socialized into new environment. Sidr has been continuing to lead many other social crises including spontaneous mass movement. Since independence there was an attempt to improve the cyclone signal for which death toll has gradually been decreasing. Constructions of cyclone shelters with a view of using those for multipurpose have been continuing. However, the shelters are still inadequate compare to the number of survivors including the facilities and utility services provided to them. The rehabilitation and restoration activities are progressing in slow pace, leaving many people under the open sky till today. Some of the development partners are engaged in constructing houses for the survivors: forcing a young parent in their fifty's living with adolescent children at a single room, which may give birth to different kinds of social crisis.

Arsenic contamination in ground water: The excessive level of presence of arsenic in drinking water is redefining water from 'life saver' to a 'threat' to survivals of millions of people in Bangladesh. While some of the specialists of Kolkata, India predicted the presence of excessive arsenic in the ground water of Bangladesh as arsenic contaminated water is found in some of the neighboring areas of West Bengal, the then government denied it. Only in 1996 some of the local researchers first made the attempt to warn the nation about the existence of arsenic in ground water. The 'International Conference on Arsenic in Bangladesh Groundwater: World's Greatest Arsenic Calamity' held on 27-28 February, 1999 in USA was dedicated to Pinjira Begum of Miapur of Chargahta village in Rajshahi district, who died of arsenicosis. As a result since late nineties arsenic contamination in ground water has become a major concern for majority of the people of Bangladesh. Because it takes 10 to 20 years, depending on the amount of arsenic accumulated in the body, to be identified as arsenic patient, people's response to the disease is not so prompt.

The vast majority of the rural people are inextricably linked with the contaminated water for their daily survival. It is reported that most of these people knew nothing about arsenic contamination, nor they anticipate the impending arsenicosis catastrophe. It must be mentioned here that according to World Health Organization the safe level of arsenic content in the drinking water is 0.01 milligram per liter. However, the Department of Environment of government of Bangladesh suggested that the accepted amount of arsenic in drinking water is 0.05 milligram per liter.

Although arsenic contamination has gradually been getting enough attention, scientific research on arsenicosis is scanty in Bangladesh. Government and other agencies have been addressing specific issues relating to arsenic problems through number of projects and policies since long. However, most of them mainly attentive to the identification, mitigation and supply of safe drinking water but little has been done to discover the pains the arsenic patients are going through. Although some organizations are identifying arsenic patients, almost nothing has been done for their rehabilitation. Because arsenicosis is related to health hazards, scientists, especially medical researchers are dominating the field. There is almost no research on the socio-cultural or economic aspects of arsenic contamination or impact of arsenicosis on society. A recent study of the author indicates that social aspects of arsenicosis have not specially attracted attention as much as technical and scientific issues related to arsenic contamination.

The print media has played an important role in reporting the social problems inflicted by arsenicosis since nineties. The author has also made an attempt to identify the socio-economic impacts of arsenicosis. Some of the already identified social consequences of arsenicosis are: social instability, superstition, ostracism, diminished working ability, increased poverty, job related problems, marriage related problems, impact on women, children and their education. Another recent study was conducted by the author in two of the arsenic affected Upazilas of two districts: Laksam of Comilla (the mostly affected Upazila in Bangladesh) and Tala Upazila of Satkhira. The findings of 1999 and 2008-2009 studies surprisingly matched with each other, especially in the context of Tala Upazila. It is evident that arsenic contamination in ground water has been leaving the people with experiments for water options or marking a tube well with red colour without providing alternatives, testing a medicine using the patients' body. The socio-economic impact are continued to be the same.

Although it took long to develop a comprehensive disaster management policy in Bangladesh, she is well known for her disaster management policy within the South Asian region. Being the most disaster prone country within South Asia Bangladesh is the first to have a separate Disaster Management Bureau (DMB), other departments and programmes. The country has a good number of institutional structures to achieve technical monitoring, capacity building, preparedness and response. The Ministry of Food and Disaster Management is responsible for coordinating national disaster management efforts across all agencies. Bangladesh has also created a simplistic model to guide disaster risk reduction and emergency response management efforts. The model has three key elements and ensures that the move to a more comprehensive risk reduction culture remains central to all efforts. A National Plan for Disaster Management (2007-2015) and the Disaster Management Law have been prepared.

However, although Bangladesh has a comprehensive disaster management programme, a well developed plan, mainstreaming strategies, CRA guideline and disaster management institutions etc. the whole operation of the disaster management is highly centralized. In case of emergency responses committees become dysfunctional. Control of the budget, relief items, disaster management mechanisms are in the hands of higher authorities at central level. The local government institutions completely depend on the decision and resources of the central disaster management authority to responed to the flood victims.

Moreover, gender issues are not taken care of with due attention at the time of disaster. Women's issues are only seen in case of vulnerability perspective and their names are listed in case of relief distribution. In fact disaster management in Bangladesh has become concomitant to relief. Other activities related to risk reduction mostly remain silent throughout the year. Why do people in Bangladesh live in hazardous areas? They are forced to, because they do not have other options. Thus the attempts of disaster managements should be made to grasp the different issues relating to different disasters, such as their problems of coping with the wounds, gender and socio-economic conditions based on differential impact on the survivors. Programmes on disaster management will be most effective if they are backed by strong policy support and guidance. This paper lends support to policies that involve people of Bangladesh in planning, that considers their disadvantageous position and gives priority to them.

Mahbuba Nasreen is a Professor and Coordinator, Centre for Disaster and Vulnerability Studies, the Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka.